An exceptional plane
Concorde is an exceptional aircraft: moving at a supersonic speed, this "great white bird" fascinates with the elegance of its delta wing and surprises with its tilting nose.
First supersonic civilian aircraft
Concorde was the first supersonic civil aircraft, the result of a Franco-British collaboration. Its ability to break the "sound barrier" distinguished it from conventional aircraft. In supersonic cruise, Concorde traveled at Mach 2, twice the speed of sound!
“We have entered this completely revolutionary time zone: the sound barrier… The sound barrier, for me, is a wall that has a real sound. Crossing the sound barrier.”
Claude Nougaro
A neo-Gothic delta wing
Unlike the first aircraft whose wings were perpendicular to the fuselage, then arrow-shaped, Concorde has a delta wing. By varying its angle of attack, the supersonic wing allows a full range of speeds. In addition, from a certain angle of incidence, the delta wing benefits from an additional lift of almost 25%.
A rocking nose
Concorde is curiously equipped with a long tilting nose. This ingenious system allows pilots to see the runway when landing when the tip is lowered.
This originality ensures a better adaptation to the different phases of flight:
- low take-off drawdown, for initial climb and approach,
- nose up for the climb, the cruise and the descent,
- strong lowering during final approach, landing and taxiing.
The tilting nose includes a retractable transparent visor, which restores the aerodynamic contour of the aircraft in supersonic flight. This also protects the windshield from the effects of kinetic heating.
Olympus 593 engines
Concorde is powered by four Olympus 593 engines, jointly designed by Rolls Royce and SNECMA. These engines, housed in pairs under the wings, develop 70 tonnes of thrust. They are equipped with an afterburner system providing the power needed for take-off and during acceleration to reach supersonic speed. Concorde's air intakes have undergone significant innovations: their flow rate is variable according to speed and the exhaust nozzle has "eyelids" at the rear, which allows a thrust reversal to slow the aircraft in flight or on landing.
A fabulous epic
The premises of Concorde
The idea of designing a supersonic aircraft first appeared in Rome in 1935, at a meeting under the auspices of the Fondazione Alessandro Volta, which brought together around fifty international aerodynamicists.
It was in the United States that the sound barrier was broken for the first time, in 1947, by Chuck Yeager aboard the Bell X-1. The United States continued its studies on a supersonic aircraft. At the same time, Europe tested experimental aircraft: Triton, Espadon, Trident, SE "Durandal", Gerfaut, Griffon, etc.
At the end of the Second World War, the British entered the race for supersonic flight, notably with the attempt of the Cornet. The progress of the military aeronautical industry benefited civil aviation. In 1959, the Supersonic Transport Aircraft Committee was created in Great Britain.
In France, Sud Aviation launches the Caravelle, sold 282 copies but quickly competed by the DC9. Georges Héreil, President of Sud Aviation, and Marcel Dassault signed a cooperation agreement to pool their know-how acquired with Caravelle and Mirage, in order to design a civil supersonic transport plane.
On both sides of the Channel, research institutes (ONERA, Royal Aircraft Establishment Farnborough) are studying the feasibility of a supersonic aircraft.
The delicate question of Franco-British harmony
At the end of the fifties, French and British confront their work. The first ones (Sud Aviation) are working on a "Super Caravelle" project; the latter (the future British Aircraft Corporation) are designing the BAC 223, two fairly comparable projects. The main difference is that the French are looking to design a medium-haul and the British a long-haul.
The two parties agree on the principle of the delta wing. The British propose a tilting nose, a formula already applied to the Fairey Delta 2. They also agree on the choice of material: an aluminum alloy, AU2GN. The engines will be Olympus 593s, co-produced by Bristol Siddeley Engines Ltd (future Rolls Royce) for the basic propeller and SNECMA for the ejection system.
In 1961, the design offices of Sud Aviation, led by Lucien Servanty, and British Aircraft Corporation, headed by WJ Strang, came together. An intergovernmental agreement was signed in London on November 29, 1962. It established the principle of equal sharing between the two countries: each country had its own assembly line, built its own prototype, and took turns directing the technical division. They also shared the financing of the program, development work, and production.
This cooperation, however, posed a certain number of practical difficulties (alternation of the presidency, language, units of measurement) and technical difficulties (working methods). At the time of the refusal of Great Britain's entry into the European Community, tensions between the two governments increased. Finally, despite their threats, the British did not withdraw from the project.
In 1963, a discussion began over the name of the supersonic. General de Gaulle named it "Concord", a term common to both languages and referring to the agreement between the partners. A controversy over the presence or absence of the final "e" opposed the two countries. In 1967, it was finally decided that the supersonic would be called "Concorde" in both languages, the "e" evoking "Excellence", "England", "Europe" and "Entente".
“Concord means peace between men. Concord is Peace.”
Claude Nougaro
Exceptional aircraft, exceptional resources: an extraordinary program
Exceptional resources were deployed for the launch of the Concorde program. In terms of design, the new materials had to be able to withstand high temperatures. In production, the first numerically controlled milling machines appeared. Two new assembly halls and a new runway were set up in Toulouse. In total, around 600 companies participated in the construction of Concorde parts.
Race against time: rivals
The great American and Soviet powers also had civil supersonic projects in their pipeline: Boeing 2707 for the United States and Tupolev 144 for the Soviet Union. Only the Tupolev would fly in December 1968, 3 months before Concorde! It broke the sound barrier for the first time in June 1969 and passed Mach 2 in May 1970. This aircraft was almost identical to Concorde, so much so that it would be named "Concordsky" by spectators at the 1973 Paris Air Show. But a dramatic accident put an end to the aircraft's career: it disintegrated on the ground during the Paris Air Show.
The time of learning
Ground tests
Concorde spent more than 10 years in testing, from 1965 to 1976: 20,000 hours of material testing, 4,000 hours of wind tunnel testing and 30,000 hours on the engines. Unprecedented. At the end of 1967, Concorde left the hangar for the first time. A year and a half later, its first official taxi took place. In the meantime, the engines were started for the first time (fixed point of the reactors) and the first taxi tests were carried out. Fatigue tests made it possible to check the aircraft's resistance over thirty years and more.
Flight tests
The flight tests were spread over seven years. Eight aircraft took part, totaling more than 5,500 flight hours, including nearly 2,000 in supersonic flight.
March 2, 1969 was a great day: the first flight, in Toulouse. This flight would last 29 minutes. The crew was composed of pilot André Turcat, co-pilot Jacques Guignard, flight engineer Henri Perrier and flight engineer Michel Rétif. The Concorde myth was being born in the presence of thousands of spectators who had rushed to witness this unique event.
A month later, on April 9, 1969, the British prototype took off, with Brian Trubshaw and John Cochrane at the helm. In October 1969, the French prototype broke the sound barrier. In November 1970, he passes Mach 2.
A series of demonstration tours of the two prototypes then began. The whole world greeted their passages: Latin America (Brazil), Asia, Oceania, Africa, etc. Concorde continued with cold weather tests (in Alaska at -43°) and hot weather tests (in the Middle East, at 47° in the shade). The supersonic also experienced exceptional flights: in 1973, the big white bird flew to meet a solar eclipse, a real in-flight observation laboratory for a team of international scientists. That day, Concorde remained in the shadow of the moon for 74 minutes!
The narrowed wingspan
But difficulties soon arose. The program encountered successive delays, leading to the postponement of the first flight. These delays were explained by the technological unknowns faced by the engineers and the successive modifications made to the aircraft to meet the requirements of customer companies. These delays were amplified by the obligation to respect the principle of equality between the French and the British. The ban by the United States on supersonic flights over its territory would have dramatic consequences.
From 1973 to 1975, two dark years: first oil shock. Fuel becomes a major issue in the aeronautics industry. The Concorde order book which peaked at 74 aircraft, for 16 customer airlines, records many cancellations, including Pan Am and TWA. Ultimately, only 16 series examples are manufactured and put into service by Air France and British Airways.
Commercial exploitation
The French authorities certified Concorde on October 9, 1975, after approximately 5,500 flight hours. The British certificate was issued on December 5, 1975. Commercial operations then began. In 1976, Air France opened the Paris – Dakar – Rio route, then Paris – Caracas. British Airways inaugurated the London – Bahrain route. The same year, the companies obtained the long-awaited authorization to fly over the United States. In May 1976, two Concordes landed simultaneously at Washington Dulles Airport to inaugurate the opening of the route. In November 1977, the New York route was inaugurated in turn, after many twists and turns. Despite the development and extension of regular flights, the introduction of supersonic aircraft did not offer the expected profitability, due to high operating costs. The oil shocks and maintenance costs contributed greatly to this. Some routes were gradually interrupted.
Exceptional flights
Air France and British Airways developed special flights or "charter flights" to improve the profitability of the supersonic. Special flights connected Washington to Nice or London to Sydney. In November 1986, British Airways launched a "round the world" formula. The British supersonic flew around the world in 16 days, via New York, San Francisco, Honolulu, Guam, Hong Kong, Bali and Cairo. Some time later, Air France completed the same journey in 18 days. The round the world flights followed one after the other, during which Concorde set speed records. In 1987, Concorde covered nearly 43,000 km in 31 hours and 57 minutes. In 1992, the supersonic flew around the world via the West in 32 hours and 49 minutes. In 1995, a round the world flight to the East was completed in just 22 hours and 39 minutes. During this period, Concorde made about thirty trips around the world. Wealthy travelers climbed aboard the white bird. Agencies offered "supersonic flight baptisms". Concorde was also the subject of advertising campaigns: in 1996, Concorde displayed the colors of Pepsi for its new advertising campaign.
The end of the journey, the beginning of a myth
July 25, 2000 sounded the death knell for this extraordinary aircraft, shortly after the accident of an aircraft from the Air France fleet: the F-BTSC, in Gonesse. Commercial operation of the Concorde of the two airlines was interrupted for a year. The supersonic flew again in September 2001, an unfavorable moment. Air traffic was severely disrupted following the tragedy of September 11. Air France and British Airways announced the cessation of Concorde operations. The mark left by the white bird remains forever that of a remarkable human and technological achievement, having paved the way for future achievements in the European aeronautics industry. A dream come true; shared ambitions; technological feats accomplished.
CONCORDE: IDENTITY CARD
DIMENSIONS / CONTENANCE
Wingspan: 25,56 m
Length: 62, 10 m
Height: 11, 41m
Sail area: 328, 25 m2
Empty weight: 77.500 kg
Fuel tank capacity: 119,750 liters
CAPACITY
Standard version: 128 passengers
Air France / British Airways version: 100 passengers
SPEED
Cruising speed: Mach 2.02 (2,179 km / h)
Maximum speed: Mach 2.23 (2,405 km / h)
Landing speed: 360 km/h
PERFORMANCE
Operational altitude: 18,300 m
Walking distance: 6.250 km (100 passengers)
PROPULSION
4 Rolls Royce Reactors - SNECMA Olympus 593
An undisputed star
A privileged clientele
The Concorde passenger is welcomed like a distinguished guest. His slightest requirement must be fully satisfied. Every detail is meticulously studied at boarding and on board. A short circuit, specially designed, allows passengers rapid access on board the supersonic. A special number is made available to them for reservations. A special bus service takes them to Paris-Charles-de-Gaulle airport, where they are greeted by porters at their service. Passengers benefit from check-in in a reserved area, indicated by "special Concorde" signage. The wait at check-in is reduced by the provision of luxurious private lounges. Customs formalities are accelerated and "Concorde spaces" welcome passengers "under customs". On board, they are served delicate dishes as well as a range of luxurious gifts. The Concorde staff ensures the total well-being of its customers, at all times during the journey.
The showcase of design
Concorde represented an ideal showcase for the designer to exercise his artistic talents. The interior decoration of the aircraft and the flight crew's outfits were entrusted to famous designers. The first cabin of the supersonic was designed by Raymond Loewy, a famous representative of industrial design in the seventies. One of his students, Pierre-Gautier Delaye, redesigned the supersonic in 1988. Andrée Putman, an icon of French design, also created an interior decoration. Each object bears the Concorde signature, from the ashtrays to the tableware. To celebrate the millennium, the Radi Designers collective gave the Concorde a new interior that it would keep until its last flight. The flight crew's outfits were also designed by the greatest designers of French fashion: Carven, Christian Dior, Balenciaga, Nina Ricci, Jean Patou, and Christian Lacroix.
Exceptional menus
The menus and wines served on board are subject to a drastic selection. Close to the greatest restaurants, the menus are accompanied by champagnes and grands crus selected by renowned sommeliers. In order to preserve the quality and flavors of the dishes, the dishes are cooked a few hours before the plane takes off, by chefs trained in the Alain Ducasse center. A special menu, developed by great ambassadors of French gastronomy, is offered for any remarkable event.
The celebrity plane
Concorde is an extraordinary aircraft. The great and the good of this world, personalities, and celebrities make up a large part of its clientele. French Presidents have frequently traveled aboard the supersonic, an object of national pride. Georges Pompidou, Valéry Giscard d'Estaing, François Mitterrand and Jacques Chirac used it for official trips. General de Gaulle also traveled aboard the supersonic. Many political or religious figures have taken Concorde: Pope John Paul II, Queen Elizabeth II, the Shah of Iran, etc. Many artists have traveled in a supersonic: singers (Mireille Mathieu, Patricia Kaas), actors (John Travolta), musicians (Aldo Ciccolini), etc. Among the designers, the couturier Karl Lagarfeld is not forgotten. Finally, businessmen are also particularly fond of the supersonic.
“Little by little, Concorde has become a star of air travel. It has a jet set side. It is a luxurious jewel.”
Claude Nougaro
A technological feat
Concorde represents a remarkable technological advance, so much has its repercussions been
many in the aeronautical sector as industrial. Supersonic research and development has led to many innovations, affecting
fields as varied as production concepts, tools, and materials.
“My first flight aboard Concorde left me with the memory of being in the cockpit of a completely modern, new animal. The impression of being in the genius of man.”
Claude Nougaro
Systems and equipment
- Concorde was the first commercial aircraft equipped with fly-by-wire controls. These were generalized at Airbus starting with the A320, then on all of its aircraft, thus offering the advantage of a range of aircraft with very close piloting.
- Airbus side-to-side piloting was tested for the first time on Concorde (on the F-WTSB propotype).
- Carbon brakes, just as strong but much lighter than steel brakes, also made their appearance on Concorde. They can withstand 1,200°C in emergency braking over 2,000 meters. A large majority of aircraft today have this type of material in their braking systems.
- The detection of underinflation of tires appears for the first time on Concorde.
- Miniaturization and automation have also made a considerable leap in piloting and navigation systems, but also in tools, robots. The miniaturization of electronic components has benefited medicine for pacemakers.
- Different types of automatic controls were developed on Concorde, such as engine regulation controls (electric and electronic) and automatic air intake regulation controls.
Methods and tools
- The first numerically controlled machine tools, such as large milling machines for machining complex parts from simple ingots, were introduced in France thanks to Concorde.
- Telemetry - real-time ground assessment of aircraft performance and behaviour during test flights - has developed considerably with Concorde.
- The SP AD brake system, a traction control device from which the famous ABS of our cars is derived, appeared for the first time on Concorde. All current commercial aircraft are equipped with this device.
- Concorde is at the origin of the ATEC (Automatic Test Equipment for Concorde) type system, which allows the detection of failures before they occur by relying on the double or even triple redundancy of sensitive equipment. This is now marketed by Airbus and Boeing throughout the world.
- Concorde was a pioneer in the field of flight simulation. The simulator improved as the aircraft was developed, with any new data measured on the real aircraft being integrated in parallel into the simulator programs.
- Concorde was the first civil aircraft to have a fuel transfer procedure, allowing the aircraft to be rebalanced by moving the centre of gravity to align with the centre of aerodynamic thrust.
- Concorde was the first aircraft to feature a honeycomb structure, which allowed for greater strength while reducing weight.
- In aerodynamics, the numerical calculation of three-dimensional flows – both subsonic and supersonic – has made it possible to optimize shapes.
- In structural calculations, the implementation of a three-dimensional finite element calculation code was the strong point on which the bases for calculating the structures of aircraft designed after Concorde are based.
- In systems studies, the use of a full-scale systems test bench, coupled with a study simulator modeling the flight equations, also represents an innovation.
The materials
The development of Concorde allowed the development, manufacturing and machining of materials, such as:
- The light alloy AU2GN: this material resists temperatures of up to 150°C. It is currently used on Airbuses, helicopters, and in the mechanical and nuclear industries.
- Special and refractory steels: high-strength steels and materials that can withstand very high temperatures appeared following studies carried out for Concorde. The latter was the first aircraft to use 35NCD16 special steel for the landing gear, now present on all Airbus aircraft.
- Titanium and its alloys: the Concorde era encouraged the use of larger quantities of titanium alloys in aeronautic (Airbus) and space (satellites) programs, contributing to weight reduction.
- Non-metallic materials: studies on long-term ageing at high temperatures required by Concorde (from 120 to 150°C) have provided in-depth knowledge of the behaviour of various materials: glass, glues, paints, elastomers. Thus, the reinforced glass of the windows and windscreen, which was developed for Concorde, is now used on all TGVs. New paints have been developed to withstand both low and high temperatures. The Teflon so popular in our pots and pans was initially designed for flight control shafts. Microswitches, made to withstand wide temperature variations, are also used in the nuclear industry.
- Composite materials: carbon fibre structures (landing gear, elevons) were tested on Concorde prototypes. These developments facilitated the integration of composite materials from the very beginning of the Airbus programme. Glass fibre composite materials developed using supersonic technology are now used in leisure aviation, the automotive industry and on pleasure boats.
What happened to Concorde?
Twenty Concords were built, six for development and fourteen for commercial flights. Air France and British Airways respectively held seven Concorde. Most of the supersonic twenty are now exhibited in major aeronautical museums or European and American airports.
Concorde for development
Among the aircraft devoted to development, there are two prototypes, two pre-production aircraft and two of sixteen production aircraft, for non-commercial use.
- The prototypes:
The F-WTSS, the famous Concorde of the first flight, and the G-BSST are respectively exhibited at the Air and Space Museum of Le Bourget (France) and at the Fleet Air Arm Museum of Yeovilton (England). - Pre-production devices:
F-WTSA and G-AXDN are located at the Delta Museum in Orly (France) and at the Duxford Aeronautical Museum (England). - Production devices:
F-WTSB is on display at the Airbus site in Toulouse (France) and G-BBDG has been donated to the Brookland Museum in Weybridge (England).
Air France Concorde
Five supersonic aircraft in Air France colours are still visible.
F-BVFA (Fox Alpha), the oldest Concorde in the Air France fleet, was donated to the National Air and Space Museum in Washington (USA). F-BVFB (Fox Bravo) was bequeathed to the Automobile and Technology Museum in Sinsheim (Germany). F-BVFC (Fox Charlie) also joined the Airbus site in Toulouse. It will join the Parcours de découverte Aéronautique du Grand Toulouse which will open its doors in 2009. FBTSD (Sierra Delta) faces the prototype at the Air and Space Museum in Le Bourget (France). Finally, F-BVFF (Fox Fox) is exhibited at Roissy-Charles-de-Gaulle airport (France).
The British Airways Concorde
G-BOAA is now on display at the Scottish National Museum. G-BOAB is at London Heathrow Airport. G-BOAC is at the Manchester Airport Visitors Park (England). G-BOAD is at the Air and Space Museum in New York. GBOAE is at Grantley Adams Airport in Bridgetown. G-BOAF is at Airbus and the Bristol Aviation Heritage Museum (England). Finally, G-BOAG is on display in Seattle, at the Museum of Flight.
The Concorde myth
Sublime success of human and technological cooperation, but commercial pitfall
Expensive to operate and less profitable than expected, Concorde represents an economic failure. On the technical level, the supersonic is a tremendous success. The innovations generated by the supersonic are up to the challenge set. These innovations result from research carried out in order to solve new problems: for example, it was necessary to adapt the fuselage of the supersonic to the fact that it lengthens by 20 cm under the effect of expansion due to heat! The technological prowess induced by Concorde thus opens the way to the success of European aeronautics and in particular to that of the Airbus programs.
The symbol of the influence of France and Great Britain
Concorde allowed France and Great Britain to demonstrate to the world their performance, even their technological superiority. The supersonic aircraft thus contributed greatly to the prestige and pride of the Franco-British Governments. Revolutionary in its design, this aircraft aroused the enthusiasm of industrialists. Concorde also aroused the curiosity and admiration of the general public, who came in droves to watch it take off and land, to the point that traffic jams formed as it approached. Beyond its detractors, Concorde was a dream, especially since it corresponded to a time of excitement
intellectual, cultural, industrial, economic and political. Let us not forget that the first flight of the Concorde took place just a few months before man's first step on the moon...
“traffic jams”
Michel Rétif, the flight engineer for the first flight
The Future of Supersonic
Following the cessation of Concorde's activity, studies were conducted on a future supersonic aircraft. The various projects developed relied on the integration of innovations allowing better adaptation to new environmental constraints. The regulations in force since the new millennium have required significant changes, particularly to meet the standards defined in terms of noise and atmospheric emissions. Furthermore, for a new-generation supersonic aircraft to be profitable, it appears necessary to increase its range, and reduce its fuel consumption and maintenance costs. Faced with these requirements, studies on an improved version of the supersonic aircraft have not yet been completed. When will there be a successor to Concorde?
